Light and Shadow: Exploring the Cultural History of Black and White

image courtesy of VCG

night and day. Good and evil. Life and death. In most minds, such contrasting ideas have been depicted in two colors: black and white. So much so, that just the phrase conjures images of opposites. But the cultural history of this dualistic pair is not so, well, black and white. For one thing, there was a time when they weren’t even considered opposites. So let’s take a look at this dynamic duo and how their symbolism, usage, and contrast have played a role in human history.

In ancient times, different cultures held different associations for these two colors. For ancient Egyptians, black was associated with both life and death, representing the fertile silt of the Nile and the realm of Osiris, god of the underworld. White, on the other hand, was not considered its opposite but rather symbolized purity and sacredness. Ancient Chinese philosophy, however, represented black and white as two opposing forces—yin (darkness) and yang (light). And in ancient Greece philosopher Aristotle developed one of the earliest documented color theories in 330 CE, placing colors on a continuum from white to black.

In addition to these different viewpoints, another color came between the fated coupling: red. In fact, the triad of white, red, and black can be found in folk tales, legends, and art going back to antiquity. During this time, despite Aristotle’s color theory, black was not seen as the opposite of white so much as red. In fact, when chess came to Europe from India around the 10th century, the colors of the pieces had to be changed from their original black/red to white/red, which was more in tune with Western thinking. Chess pieces would remain white and red for over three centuries until slowly black replaced red on the board.

Elizabeth Alexeevna, J.L.Mosnier, early 1800s

Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau), John Singer Sargent, 1884

Opposites Attract

The removal of red from the equation can be partially credited to a pivotal moment — the invention of the printing press in 1440. The development of an intensely dark black ink, mechanically pressed into a paper’s white rag fibers gave the two colors special meaning. Their stark contrast would not fade in neither the books in which it appeared nor in the mind of the public.

Socio-political ideas of morality also contributed to the inevitable coupling of black and white. The 16^th century saw the Protestant Reformation sweep across Europe, a movement that, in part, challenged the indulgence systems of the Catholic Church. It was a defining moment in the course of Western history, creating a schism in religious thinking and affecting all areas of society, including color and dress. Bright colors were seen as immoral and indulgent. Instead, Protestants took up a dress code composed almost entirely in black, white, and grey.

Up to and during this time, both black and white, in their truest sense, were expensive and difficult to produce on cloth, requiring multiple dye baths and/or the slow, natural process of sun bleaching. Because of their cost, these colors quickly became associated with wealth. Though true black had become easier to produce thanks to high quality dyes from the Americas, its popularity among nobility, particularly the Hapsburg courts of Spain and the Netherlands, kept its associations to wealth, power, and piety. True white, on the other hand, was especially difficult to produce and maintain, and was thus often limited to smaller articles of clothing such as lace, ruffs, and collars. Set against these elements and the lead-whitened skin of the day, the black garments created a striking and fashionable look that would remain popular for many centuries. So striking, in fact, that John Singer Sargent replicated it (though with a modern twist) when he unveiled his portrait of Madame Virginie Amélie Avegno Gautreau in 1884. The portrait caused an uproar in Parisian society, Sargent changed the title to Portrait of Madame X, as it remains today.

Saint Catherine of Alexandria, Caravaggio, 1598

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulps, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1632

The Art of Light and Dark

During the Renaissance, artists exploited this contrast to enhance the intimacy and three-dimensionality of their work. Known as chiaroscuro (literally “light-dark”), the technique was favored by many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, who is considered a master of it. A related technique known as tenebrism (from tenebroso, “darkened”) also highlighted the intense contrast between light and dark. It became the defining style of the Baroque era, adopted by artists like Caravaggio, Rembrandt, and Johannes Vermeer.

With the invention of black and white photography in the early 19th century, the color pairing made a new mark in the art world—and in the minds of the public. Though early photography was more brown and grey than true black and white, the images produced circulated throughout the world cementing the pairing in the modern eye. Black was the color of coal and metal, while white represented purity and cleanliness—all concepts that aligned perfectly in the modern age of science and industry.

Audrey Hepburn in a dress designed by Hubert de Givenchy, 1961

Mademoiselle Chanel in the atelier, working with model Constance Fenton, House of Chanel, Paris, 1962

Back to Black (and White)

Perhaps nowhere has black and white left such an indelible impression as in modern fashion. The 20th century saw the colors take center stage once again, shaping how we see the world. In 1926, Coco Chanel popularized the "little black dress," which became a timeless fashion staple. Chanel also introduced the classic black and white suit, a look she borrowed from menswear. In 1947, Christian Dior's "New Look" featured the iconic Bar Suit, combining a black dress with an ivory jacket. Named after the bar in the Plaza Athénée (a frequent haunt of the designer), the suit became a defining look for both the era and the fashion house. Dior himself created 22 variations over the years, with subsequent directors adding their own versions, the vast majority of which were done in the look’s defining black and white.

The 1960s embraced black and white with open arms. Op art challenged perceptions, confusing the eye with graphic displays most commonly done in black and white. Fashion took the look to reveal striking versions of minimalist styles by designers like John Bates and Mary Quant. Complete with short skirts, white Go-Go boots, and graphic monochrome prints, these looks came to define mod style. And who could forget the classic art-meets-fashion look made famous by Yves Saint Laurent in 1965. His Mondrian-inspired dress relied on the graphic structure delineated by black stripes on a white field.

zellige 4x4" in scribes ink

clé calacatta gold plank

belgian reproduction terracotta rectangle in flemish ink

The cultural significance of black and white continues to evolve. In 2023, the Met Gala theme "Karl Lagerfeld: A Line of Beauty" celebrated the late designer's love of black and white. The gala’s red carpet saw an endless stream of such apparel donned in honor of the late designer. beyond fashion, the palette has been a perennial favorite in the realms of interior and graphic design, but has even seen a recent revivial, landing many magazine covers through 2024.

erica tanov jacobsen cement in plaster + black. design / photo: meredith brockington

floor: belgian reproduction hex in flemish ink; shower: eastern elements rectangle in rice paper. Design: carly waters / photo: tessa neustadt

black and white remain powerful tools in art, design, fashion, and society. Their timeless appeal and stark contrast continue to captivate audiences, while their rich history adds depth to their contemporary usage. From ancient symbolism to modern fashion, black and white have proven to be more than just colors (or not) — they are a language of visual communication that transcends time and culture.